Summaries and highlights of the required readings for this course.
Week 1
Key Terms: sources of oppression (church, monarchy, economic structure), technocratic, progess: what is it?
This essay goes back in history, to before the Industrial Revolution and even before the American Revolution and examines how technological progress was perceived. In those days, a lot of technological progress occurred parallel to major political upheavals and movements, like the American and French revolutions (which has been brewing for decades). To the leaders of those movements, technological progress was just a means toward social and political liberation. Notably, Ben Franklin refused to patent and profit from his inventions because he felt his work should simply benefit the country and humanity. However, over time the perception of technology’s role changed and became more focused on efficiency and profits (ala Fredrick Taylor), which is highlighted by the words of Daniel Webster, a politician, whose speech at the opening of a new railroad seems to view the railroad as an achievement in itself, and how it was sort of divinely intended to be. Later writers like Thoreau and Melville (Moby Dick) explore the distinction between “ends” and “means” and where technological progress sits. This philosophical discussion would be a wise one for the Chinese to have, as they have been gawking at American technological prowess with admiration and envy, and doing everything to duplicate it in recent years.
This essay is presented as sort of a discussion between a Computer Scientist and some other educated professional, who asks the former, “can your field really be called ‘Science'”? A debate ensues. Essentially, the argument against Computer Science being “science” is that it is a man-made creation, and does not explore the existence or reasons behind natural phenomena. It argues, a better name would be “Information Technology”, as Europeans call it. The argument for the term “Science”, is that Computer Science deals with “Computing” which IS in fact a science, using concepts from mathematics, physics, electricity, engineering, and other areas. It’s true that some parts of Computer Science are closer to math, some are closer to engineering, etc, but together it’s a science in itself. Lexicographers and Computer Scientists have divided up the categories of the broad term “Computer Science” to better categorize the nature of its activities. Finally, the essay discusses the field of Computer Science’s “power to surprise” as other sciences can do, and of course, it can.
Week 2
When John Glen orbitted the Earth as the first American to do so, he reported that he didn’t feel any special awe in it, as it had felt exactly like the simulators he spent so much time in. This according to this essay’s author, is an example technology becoming more life-like than life itself. Engineers don’t consider this possibility enough – that is, they don’t devote any time to considering how technology affects life and society, and that’s where philosophers need to step in. Conventional wisdom thinks of technology in two broad forms: making it (the domain of inventors, technicians etc), and using it (domain of ordinary people). We need to expand on these by stepping back and examining what has become rote behaviour (similar to examining how we speak a language, which we do so naturally without ever thinking about).
The author provides an example of technology bending the social fabric with the example of a man in a car driving by his friend on foot and trying to say hello, but not being able to do so normally because of the physical constraints of the car and by the rules of the road. Knowing how cars are made and work, he says, doesn’t help us much to understand how the mold social dynamics. The author denies being a hard technological determinist, and claims instead to be a sort of technological sleepwalker – “willingly sleepwalking through the process of reconstituting the conditions of human existence“. The concept of “forms of life” is from a book by Ludwig Wittgenstein which calls speaking a language a “form of life”. He used television as an example of a technology that can be called a “form of life”, in that since its introduction, it has literally consumed hours of the average American’s day – something nobody would have predicted when it was introduced. Not only that, but it has evolved into other “jobs”, for example, as a children’s babysitter. In short, a “form of life” is something that affects what it means to be human.
In this essay, the author raises the question of whether artifacts – inanimate technological objects – inherently have politics, like people do. The typical attitude toward this is to say that the artifacts are not what matters, it’s the social/economic system it’s in. However, the author Winner argues that this essentially says that technical “things” don’t matter at all. But they do. A good example is are the overpasses in Long Island, designed to keep buses – and thus, poor people – out of the area. The overpasses (designed by Robert Moses) inherently have politics. However while some technologies shape social/political order (LI overpasses), there are those that strictly require a certain social order (ship at sea, railways, atom bomb etc described by Alfred Chandler in “The Visible Hand”), and yet a third type that are highly compatible but not do not strictly require these orders (solar energy).
Alfred Chandler hypothesizes that perhaps there are ways to run massive operational endeavours without the strict requirement for an authoritarian social order. One proof he brings is from worker-managed automotive plants in Yugoslavia and Sweden. Whether this is true is a an open question. A survey of American business executives show there is hope. If the democratic principles can’t work in the firm, how can they work in civil society?
Langdon Winner’s Wikipedia page has a nice breakdown of this essay as well.
Key Terms: policy vacuums, Logical malleability, Invisibility Factor,
Published in 1985, when the questions herein were first starting to be raised, this paper tries to convince us that the [then] emerging tools known as “computers” requires a new set, or description, of ethics to fill what he calls “a policy vacuum”. . The author, James Moore argues essentially for the creation of Computer Ethics as a discipline. His base example is the question of how we should look at computer programs when it comes to intellectual property and patents. Is a program a [copyrightable] concept or is it a [patentable] process? He delves into the characteristics of the oft called “computer revolution” and pinpoints key features like the abundance, affordability and power of modern systems. He posits about the next stage of the revolution, which he conjectures will cause questions about computers to shift from “how well can the computer do this activity?” to “what is the nature and value of X activity?”. Since computers are changing som much about society, for example, how we work – and even what “work” means – new ethical standards need to be established. The Invisibility Factor is another prominent concept, which refers to the fact that most of what happens internally is invisible and can be abused. For example, in one variety, a programmer for a bank builds in some lines of code to transfer the balance of rounding errors to his account. In another, a programmer/company builds a preferential feature into a search algorithm. Computer ethics, Moore writes, should help us deal with the dilemmas about how to handle these new issues.
Johnson classifies computer ethics issues in three ways: 1) according to the type of technology (what will this new computing power mean for what it is to be human?) 2) according to sector in which it is used (what will this do to privacy in medical records?) 3) according to ethical concepts or themes. The third classification is the subject of the paper, which builds on Moor’s “What is Computer Ethics?”. Johnson wonders: what impact does technology have on ethics? The answer she offers is in two steps. First, is to acknowledge intimate connection between human action and computers – that technology changes the nature of human “actions” (action theory, act types, act tokens, etc). Second, is to connect human action to ethics. Practical example, is workplace monitoring, which without technology is ethical to some degree, but with technology (i.e. monitoring every keystroke) involves new actions and new questions.
Though computer ethics in this way sounds like ordinary practical/applied ethics (i.e. be honest in real life so be honest on a computer), it’s not so simple. How do ethics apply to concepts like “software” when we don’t even know what software is (is it an idea, intellectual property, a series of unpatentable steps etc?). One of the best examples is of rape in a virtual game. What is the ethical view of a person manipulating bits in such a way that it represents a virtual avatar raping another?
There is still a raging debate about what Computer Ethics are and what the job of the ethicist is (Gotterbarn is mentioned). Whatever it is, some of the emerging issues in Computer Ethics are; privacy, cybercrime/abuse, and internet issues and virtual reality. Johnson discusses each of them in their own few paragraphs.
Week 4
Key Terms: soma,
Pitt wants to say that the iPod is destroying humanity and doing what Big Brother could not: silence people. He laments how the once lively Graduate Students Lounge now sits quiet, its members just sitting there hooked up to their devices. People on the street stare down at their screens and don’t make contact.
The iPod is essentially real-life soma: personally customized drugs for the masses, to keep them busy and disengaged. iPods discourage all social interaction to the extent that if two iPod users wanted to use the same docking station, it’s likely that one would just give in to the other quickly rather than having a social confrontation.
What’s the problem with all this? Well our world depends on communication skills, team building, networking and group projects to move forward. When Graduate Students stop having informal discussions, their debate skills suffer. They may be worse off as teachers because they aren’t prepared or well versed enough to have interactions with their students.
Communication and social skills are crucial for a democracy to continue, and since iPods hurt these sills, they are a threat to our democracy.
Key Terms: Furby, psychology of projection, psychology of engagement, Baby IT/My Real Baby, romantic reaction, robotic moment
Turkle describes her experiment introducing Furby dolls to be a bunch of eight year olds, who receive the Furbies as mechanical yet living creatures with a unique biology. They interact with care for the dolls and grow attached to them as they raise them (i.e. teach it English, feed it, etc). There is a new dynamic in this sort of relationship that hadn’t existed in the already evolving human-computer one. Turkle used to understand people’s computer use as a sort of projection – like a Rorschach test – of them onto the computer, but with Furby, it resembles closer to a psychology of engagement. This sets it apart from traditional dolls which waits for the child to animate it.
As an extreme example, Turkle points to children David and Zach, who wouldn’t accept a new Furby after their Furby died – which itself was an agonizing process of hearing it break down over time. Unlike the Merlin computer game from the 80s which had only a few “reactions”, Furby can actually create emotional attachment. An illustration of that is how nervous and anxious children get watching a Furby being ‘surgically’ repaired.
On an Ethical level, Turkle references Freedom Baird’s “Turing test for the heart”, which asks, under what conditions is a creature deemed alive enough for people to experience an ethical dilemma when it is distressed? An experiment to test this asks a person to hold a barbie, a Furby and a gerbil upside down and count how long it takes for one to feel bad enough to put them back upright.
Neuroscientist Antonio Damasio describes two levels of experiencing pain: 1) physical response to stimulus 2) emotion associated with pain. Turning Furby upside-down evokes the emotion that acknowledges a living animal would feel pain in this position.
When Hasbro produced the Baby IT, marketed as My Real Baby, it was programmed to shut down if “abused”, so as not to “enable” sadistic behaviour. This was controversial, as some believed, showing no response to pain taught a bad lesson. Yet still, children playing with MRB were observed tormenting it and trying to protect it from torment by others.
A student of Turkle’s visited MIT’s Nexi robot, which at the time was not active, and sitting in the corner blindfolded. The blindfold gave even more realism and humanism to the robot, since nobody would need to blindfold an inanimate doll. The idea that the robot would otherwise see gave it human qualities.
The romantic reaction to robotics emphasized that there are uniquely human qualities that only humans can share, feel and express (romance, friendship, life etc). In the robotic moment, we are seeing that human emotions are reducible to what they look like, and that robots may be able to be confidants and discuss these issues with us.
Key Terms: alone together, Goldilocks Effect, solitude
Turkle first describes how good she felt (“it felt like a hug”) when her daughter texted her “good luck!” before her speech. She reminisces about the 90s (when her work was written up in Wired magazine) when technology was being explored and seen as exciting as empowering (chat rooms, forums, etc). However, in this TED talk, she has found that these devices are actually changing – not only what we do, but who we are. We do weird things, previously unheard of (like online shopping during meetings, texting at family meals, funerals, etc). This matters because it may lead to trouble – of course trouble with how we interact with others, but also how we relate to ourselves. What these devices offer, is for us to customize where we want to be and what we want to pay attention to, 24/7. In this new world, people are super connected and can’t get enough of eachother – if and only if – they can have eachother at a distance and in amounts they can control. Not too much, not too little. Turkle calls this the Goldilocks Effect. People (especially adolescents) don’t like live conversation because they can’t edit, delete etc. They can’t control/retouch the image they want. This is bad because only personal conversation can really give you an understanding of the other person. As an example, she points to “sociable robots” as a sign that we may have lost confidence in being there for eachother at a human level.
What Turkle recommends, is to create spaces where real solitude can be experienced, and where only real conversations can be had. Reclaim your dining rooms, family rooms, board rooms, etc.
Week 5
Key Terms: androcentrism, gynocentrism, essentialists vs social constructionists,
The paper is structures with the following sections; Introduction – a listing of cases where unique questions about technology, ethics and gender arise, and a discussion of the nature of both technology and and and gender. The author says of technology and gender are both dynamic, but while technology is typically something material marketed as an economic tool, gender is not. Technology’s Association with Gender – in this section the author explains how technology is embedded in gender framework where masculine psychology is technology oriented while feminine is nature-oriented. Men have a drive to conquer nature, through making spears, knives, etc while women stay in the home giving birth, preparing food, nurturing, etc. Some feminists believe man’s desire to produce technology is “womb envy” – jealousy of the female ability to naturally create. The idealized view of women being closer to nature, creates a dichotomy of male/technology/bad vs female/nature/good. Technology Reinforcing Gender Systems – discusses how certain devices specifically enforce the gender structure, for example, chastity belts, breast implants, Barbie dolls, toy guns, etc. Gender can also limit a specific sex from using certain technology, for example, women generally won’t buy phones marketed as a business tool, while men won’t use a high-tech sewing machine. Unequal access for the sexes can come from perceptions of natural abilities – for example, women are seen as weak and passive and should not be handling guns. Technology Subverting Gender is about how technology helps people break out of gender roles, for example, women can now join a war effort by servicing machines used in battle. Also, many roles that females were relegated to have since been abolished, like typists, etc. Of course there are also technologies that can shake our perception of what gender really is, like sex changes, reproductive technologies, etc. This leads to the final section: Technology Affecting the Very Nature of Gender and Sex which examines how the concept of gender might be completely altered. The gender debate is generally centered around two main camps; the essentialists (who believe that some essential property defines a man as a man, a woman as a woman, and are not dependent on a culture or any external factor. Gender is “natural”) and the social-constructivists (who believe that gender identity is formed by culture and is socially constructed). The final points of the article discuss how, either way, technology threatens to disrupt the heart of the debate by altering the connections between their premises and conclusions.
Key Terms: virtual segregation, digital divide
The authors, on their way to discover why so few African-Americans take up Computer Science, discover another area in which African-Americans are under-represented: swimming. The question is “why”? The authors go to 3 mostly Black LA public schools to find out. 2 of the first students they interview says Black students like them don’t have as much access or experience with computers. (The authors then define Computer Science so readers don’t confuse it to mean knowing how to use Word processing, or Google. )
The key here is that historically oppressed mino
Key Terms: piracy, social costs, attitudinal, reasoned action, behavioural control, nonexclusivity, endogenous factors
This paper is quite ridiculously long for an article that essentially says what everyone can instinctively say in 20 words or less. Therefore I will summarize it by section.
Introduction:
Introduces the problem of software piracy, and the massive costs associated with it (rivalling only organized crime). For every legitimate copy of software, it’s estimated there are between 2 and ten illegitimate copies. Business Software Alliance estimates costs at upwards of 11 Billion dollars. But beyond the financial impact, we want to look at this area to investigate social norms and moral standards as well discuss what intellectual property really is.
Theory and Model Development
Software piracy has been studied from the perspective of economics, deterrence/detection, risk-taking phenomenon, and societal moral values. Most have dealt with legal and financial consequences but few have dealt with social costs. Here we develop an encompassing and plausible model of understanding piracy that both predicts and examines incidents of it. It will take into account moral, ethical and attitudinal concerns and address the distinction between intellectual and tangible property.
Computer Usage and Demographic Factors
Software piracy is a dimension of computer use, and high number of computer users (62%) made illegal software copies and believe the threat of being caught is low. Software pirates are generally young, bright eager and well qualified – the same qualities we value in people. Thus, what are the demographic characteristics of pirates? It remains an empirical question.
Morality, Ethics and Reasoned Action
Morality is important but not sufficient for developing a predictive model so we turn to reasoned action, which asks most importantly, “what are the person’s intentions?”. There are 2 main determinants of intention: a personal (attitudinal) factor, and a social (normative) factor. It seems that these two factors are not independent but affect one another – especially that attitudinal is affected by normative. Software pirates evaluate how they feel about piracy and what those around them and society say about it. As attitudes and subjective norms become more favorable to piracy, we can expect to see more of it.
Modelling Conceptual Differences in Software and Intellectual Property
Personal and social factors are clearly important to predicting software piracy. The awareness that others are doing it and and promoting sentiments that software is overpriced, may lead someone to engaging in it. Perceived behavioural control should play an important role here – the higher the level of expertise of an individual, the more of a chance he could pirate software.
Method
We’ve identified likely predictors of software piracy and now need to test them, by use of a survey. The following sections describe this survey.
Sample
Conducted at a large southwestern university in the US, and included everyone on payroll – staff, faculty, graduate students, etc. 1910 surveys were distributed and 523 valid ones were collected.
Survey Design
The survey was divided into three sections. 1) questions addressing general aspects of computer use, personal piracy behaviour and perceptions of other people’s piracy behaviour. 2) asked on attitudes and perceptions regarding piracy, using multi-item scales (7 point Likert scales) to measure stuff like proportionality, social norms, expertise required and ease. 3) Standard demographic questions (age, gender, education, religion, etc)
Procedure
The survey was pretested in small sample and then distributed through campus mail. A cover letter promised anonymity.
Results
Descriptive Statistics
44% said they received an average of 5.0 pirated programs from friends/family. 31% said they themselves made illegal copies. On average, they perceived that 66% of others had illegal copies. 49% said they had taken 2 or more formal computer courses – of these, 89% had more than two years experience. Most common pirated programs: Word processing (91%), spreadsheet (46%) and email (41%). 58% had PC at home.
Indicators of the Measurement Model
The indicators were used to model perceptions of piracy that crossed boundaries in various areas like computer use and experience to moral issues.
Empirical Assessment of the Measurement Model
The additional factors of deterrence, detectability and nonexclusivity turned out to have no empirical basis. That is, they were not factors in why or why people don’t engage in software piracy.
Empirical Assessment of the Measurement Model
…
Discussion
This research support and extend previous studies concerning piracy behaviour. For example, that piracy is common, and men pirate software more than women. The survey found that normative and societal factors are most crucial, with attitudinal factors not being significant. The survey also investigated perceived distinctions between tangible and intellectual property. There was correlation between finding software overpriced to saying it was OK to copy it.
Understanding attitudes and perceptions may help fighting piracy. For example if it turns out price is perceived too high, software companies can either lower prices or improve marketing. Companies must try to improve protection without making activation too complicated.
Ethical Decision Making Models and Software Piracy
- Ethical Judgement and Intent
- Nisan: ethical judgements rely on personal standards and general principles regarding right or wrong.
- Simpson: found no evidence of what Nisan claims
- Harrington: found that only 20% of people think copying software is OK, but more than 30% would actually do it. Meaning, even people who think it’s wrong will do it.
- Responsibility Denial
- People with high RD, more likely to pirate
- Robin Hood Syndrome
- The belief that harming a large organization for the benefit of individuals is good.
Method
- Measurement of Ethical Judgement, Intent, and Behaviour
- Questions were asked on Likert scale and used to measure attitutdes toward different scenarios, like “would you copy for a family member?”.
- Measurement of RD
- Measurement of Robin Hood Syndrome
Results
The study confirmed the hypothesis that Responsibility Denial and Robin Hood Syndrome influence students unethical behaviour regarding software piracy.
Week 6
Key Terms: ICT
Three priority areas for poverty reduction: increasing opportunity, enhancing empowerment, and improving security. Information & Communication Technologies are well suited to solve each of these problems – even in rural India. This is a summary of these projects and how they are helping people.
OPPORTUNITY
Computerized milk collection centers. The idea is to better connect people to markets so they have real time information about prices and market forces. This can spark entrepreneurial initiatives. With milk computerized milk collection, farmers can now more quickly and accurately asses the quality of their milk and get paid fairly. The general statistics can also be compiled and viewed by anyone to get an idea of the needs and supply information.
India Healthcare Delivery Project: PDAs and special devices are freeing up huge amounts of time that Auxiliary Nurse Midwives usually require for data entry about their rural patients. Being more efficient allows them to visit more patients.
EMPOWERMENT
Gyandoot: A government owned network of computers in rural villages that allows poor villagers to handle their government affairs (i.e. obtaining records, submit applications, meet officials, etc) so they don’t have to give up a day’s income and schlep to the nearest large city. The system also provides information about crop prices, school records, and public complaint forms.
SECURITY
Smart Cards: Helps people cope with risk – for example, of not being paid. It allows the efficient and secure transfer of funds.
REALIZING ICT POTENTIAL NOT AN AUTOMATIC PROCESS
ICT will not automatically pull anyone out of poverty. First the costs associated with it must be brought down, or the poor will continue to rely on cheaper and more time intensive communication mediums like the telephone. Even in areas with telephone lines, ICT has not reached the poor, who still mostly rely on the radio and informal networks.
FOSTERING COMPETITION
Privatization and competition has been instrumental in raising ICT access rates in countries around the world. But privatization cannot do it alone – governments still need to support efforts by building infrastructure. In the 90s, India went through reforms and it brought the teledensity up significantly, but small companies were not able to take part in the growth.
ROLE FOR SMALL ENTREPRENEURS
While large companies tend to focus on large, more affluent areas, small companies are more capable and eager to focus on smaller, more rural and poor areas.
Still the private sector may not be able to reach the most poor of the poor. Regulatory mechanisms might be needed to ensure universal access. One option is to invite companies to bid on very poor and probably unprofitable areas in exchange for subsidies. This has worked in Chile, where a subsidy of 2 million dollars brought 40 million of investment, in the form of 1000 phones installed in rural towns.
PROJECT DESIGN LESSONS
How to ensure that ICT reaches the poor and not only benefit the middle and upper class?
Grassroots
It’s important for someone to be present who possesses the knowledge of how to operate ICT to be present, or the villagers won’t learn or trust the technology. In one place, ANMs have been working directly with villagers, as have the dairy co-ops with the farmers. Young local entrepeneurs operate computer kiosks and constantly expand their offerings.
Community Involvement
Local ownership fosters the success and resilience of ICT projects. Outside control and top-down approaches, on the other hand, often waste resources in the initial periods of projects endangering their future sustainability. In Rajasthan, the state-sponsored RajNidhi e-governance program has failed to deliver, despite the fact that the software is easy to use and in Hindi, because of extremely centralized planning that did not take local conditions into consideration. Content, in fact, lacks regular updating because of communications problems between the state and the local government
Information Needs, Locally-Contextualized Information, and ProPoor Services
These tools should be used to ensure that ICT applications respond to the priorities of the community. The Honey Bee Network, with its database of solutions to local development problems, is a good example of the creation of relevant content for the lives of poor people. Innovative solutions presented in the database include a tilting bullock cart, a simple device to fill nursery bags, an improved pulley for drawing water, and a gum scrapper to enable women to collect gum from thorny bushes or trees. It is also advisable that ICT projects focus on a limited number of well-run pro-poor services, and expand them incrementally, rather than offer a great number of services that end up lying unutilized because of lack of demand.
Awareness Raising and Training
Financial Sustainability, Monitoring, and Evaluation
Connectivity can be expensive. A fixed line connection can cost more than $650 US. Phone booth operators need to earn a lot just to break even. We need rigorous monitoring to detemrine the financial viability of ICT.
Mobile phones are causing a revolution of sorts in Africa. Economies are cropping around it (ie. selling airtime, renting phones etc) and more and people are becoming subscribers.
The Birth and Rise of Mobile phones in Africa
The first cellphone call was made in Zaire in 1987. Since then cellphones have exploded. Many business executives didn’t expect this becuase they were used to models used in Western countries with contracts, high-end phones etc. They didn’t properly see the potential in prepaid, etc.
Transforming lives and generating new socio-economic opportunities
Economist Jeffrey Sachs has championed mobile telephony as ‘the single most transformative technology for development’. Countries where cellphone use was high had a higher GDP than an otherwise identical country. The benefits of mobile phones can fall into three categories: incremental (improving the speed and efficiency of what people already do), transformational (offering something new), and related to production (selling mobiles and related services). Cellphones allow small businesses to grow, for example by allowing the owner to take more phonecalls even when out of the office.
Cellphones are used for mobile payments. Kenyan company M-Pesa has enabled people without bank accounts to have access to easy-to-use, widely accessible and cheap money transfers. They are used for health purposes i.e. to collect health data, support diagnosis and treatment, and disseminate health education in poor settings.28 Examples include daily text message medication reminders sent to tuberculosis patients, and Uganda’s Text to Change project, which raises HIV/AIDS awareness via a text message-based quiz.
Another use is for political purposes. In the 2007 Nigerian election, people were able to send their observations about the elections to monitoring groups like the EU. Ushahidi.com helped people report violent incidents after the Kenyan election.
The formal telecom sector provides many jobs, from sales, to accounting , to IT, while the informal sector provides jobs for resellers, brokers, phone renters, technicians, dealers, etc.
The limits of mobile telephony and missed opportunities
Unfortunately not everyone has benefited from the ubiquity and popularity of the cellphone in Africa. In fact, telephony might be widening the gap between the poor and the poorest (what Manuel Castells calls the “fourth world”). There are difficulties with usability (i.e. illiteracy) and people who can’t afford to use all the features and have to resort to “beeping”. Government control and restrictions also have hurt growth for example in Burundi, Eriteria, Djibouti, and more where there are state monopolies (often motivated by political interests and the ability to control communication), only 10 percent have cellphones.
Cell phone use has caused tragedies too, for example, in 2007 when texts were circulated spreading hate against one group who were then massacred.
Conclusion
Mobile phones have impacted a lot of lives but not all. One very positive outcome is that a tech community is evolving and growing. The poorest should not be forgotten. More private-public partnerships should be nurtured. Imagination, technology and efficient regulation will help Africa flourish.
RAPHI in CONCORDIA 
Thanks